In the introduction to his important book, the rabbi,1Rabbi Moshe Ḥayim Luzzatto (1707–1746), also known as Ramḥal, a prominent Italian Jewish kabbalist, philosopher of ethics, and moralist. author of Mesillat Yesharim (Path of the Just),2R. Salanter highly valued this Mussar book by R. Luzzatto and arranged for its republication in Vilna in 1844–1845 in order to have the lay people and his Mussar disciples use it as a fundamental text for character building and self-improvement. It is noteworthy that he does not turn to R. Luzzatto’s more kabbalistic writings as a resource for the Mussar movement. In a letter to his close friend and disciple, Eliyahu Kretinga, written in 1849 (see R. Shraga HaCohen Vilman, Iggerot UKetavim Me’et HaGaon R. Yisrael Salanter Zt”l [Jerusalem: Dror, 1970], 28), he writes regarding Ramḥal’s kabbalistic works: ״איננו שייך לי כי אינני עוסק בזה ולא ידעתי בכלל אם העת נכון לזה״ – “It does not relate to me, for I do not study it and I have no idea whether the time is right for it.” Educationally, one might understand R. Salanter’s approach as follows: R. Salanter sees the great challenge of the arrival of a new culture, i.e., modernity, in which the self-evident authority of the Torah is confronted with alternative values and authority, and the universal observance of tradition is consequently undermined. R. Salanter concluded that the inherited culture of external observance, drawing its authority from the collective consensus of the Torah’s sacred status and conformity of practice and thought, could not endure in the face of choice and an alternative culture. His solution was not to reinforce traditional authority on the basis of Kabbala, but instead to develop an internalized, character-based, religious individual who chose to uphold the tradition. To do so, he drew upon classic sources and the Mussar tradition, which highlighted the values inherent in observance, as well as character building and ethics, which were found in the tradition. Benjamin Brown makes the definitive case that R. Salanter chose to focus on Mussar and not Kabbala in “‘It Does Not Relate to Me’: Rabbi Israel Salanter and the Kabbalah,” in M. R. Niehoff, R. Meroz, and J. Garb (eds.), VeZot LiYehuda – And This Is for Yehuda: Yehuda Liebes Jubilee Volume (Jerusalem: Mosad Bialik, 2012), 420–39 (Hebrew). began by saying he will write only simple and well-known things. Take a look – I have no Mesillat Yesharim before me at present. I, too, will write only what has been said and repeated many times. Yom Kippur, aside from its being a weighty mitzva – a positive commandment punishable by excision,3The first mishna in Keritot lists only two positive commandments that are punishable by karet (excision) if one fails to perform them: the Paschal offering and circumcision. It is possible that the text here should be “mitzvat lo taaseh” (“negative commandment”) instead of “mitzvat aseh” (“positive commandment”), and the printer made an error. Alternatively, R. Salanter may have written this letter while traveling – earlier he noted, “I have no Mesillat Yesharim before me at present” – so he may have simply erred or misremembered. Note that at the end of Letter 21 he mentions that he is mailing his letter immediately (by implication, not edited or proofread) and asks his students “to correct his errors.” etc. – is especially useful to save a person from a great many troubles. For this “person” is the subject that we can only call “the self.”4R. Salanter focused on the concept of the “self” (the “anokhi,” the ego) early in his career, though the concept was not well developed in premodern thinking. For example, Rambam’s Shemona Perakim, the introduction to his commentary on Avot, does not describe character traits as components of an indivisible self, nor does it focus on the individual as a composite soul inside a body with specific traits, but rather as an agglomeration of separate “middot,” or dispositions. Thinking of the individual as a “self” is widespread in modern culture. This reflects sociological tendencies; that is, a society that allows for more individual choice and is based on achieved status will have a more robust concept of the “self.” Moreover, these developments were incorporated into psychology and the theory of the self. Modern culture thus moves toward a much stronger sense of a unitary self, and R. Salanter’s use of “anokhi” is an example of his having internalized this emerging, more individualistic conception of human nature. The “self” is who speaks, thinks, and desires; the “self” is who works hard to attain the object of his desire. The self is embedded in physical matter, and when [this matter] loses its life force – that is, upon death – the self retains its vitality and life force. Removed from the material world5Most of R. Salanter’s statements in previous letters have been tactical and common sense. His description of the “anokhi” is the most developed conceptual statement he has made thus far. Here he describes the self as enduring after the death of the body, thus identifying it with the soul. R. Salanter is thus asking his readers to think of Yom Kippur not as a set of rituals, but as a moment for self/soul-assessment. On Yom Kippur, the self is separated from the material world and views itself more as disembodied, whereas under normal circumstances, the body and its needs dominate. When one is thinking like a pure soul, one realizes that the greatest pleasure and pain will be experienced in the next world, so one wants to make sure to maintain a pure soul in this world, doing the mitzvot fully and not superficially. In this letter, in addition to focusing on the next world, as in previous letters, R. Salanter also focuses on this world and how our behavior in it affects our soul/self. – that is, from the linkage of the soul or self with matter or the body – it still is characterized by a capacity for pain and pleasure, of the betterment or worsening of its conditions, for terrible pain or sublime, incomparable pleasure, that far surpass the pain and pleasure that the self has the capacity for in this world, when it is tethered to the body. This [ultimate] pain and pleasure depends on the behavior of the person, the self, in this world – on observing the commandments of God, blessed be His name. By fulfilling God’s commandments, the person – that is, the self – will attain great pleasure; by violating God’s commandments, he will suffer terribly.6R. Salanter is instructing his students not to think of themselves in terms of multiple internal forces, traits, and dispositions and instead think of themselves as monistic “selves” governing everything. This “self” is the soul that survives in the next world, to be rewarded or punished in accordance with behavior as a mortal.
The recompense for each type of sin differs qualitatively from that of any other, in accordance with His judgment.7This is a another modern-oriented interpretation, in that R. Salanter focuses on the uniqueness of every individual temperament and the differing quality of every act done by different individuals. God responds and judges each person according to their individual qualities that lead to the behaviors and materially change the inner quality of each act. The individuals’ actual behaviors externally may seem identical to someone else’s. However, reflecting each person’s uniqueness, the difficulty or ease of doing the action and the inner quality of the behavior vary widely. God discerns these differences and rewards/punishes accordingly. People differ from one another in every detail of the sin and in receiving punishment, according to their traits and circumstances in this world: rich or poor,8I.e., it is worse for a rich person to steal. wise or simple, energetic or lazy, and so forth with respect to innumerable different states of mind.9Tekhuna (pl. tekhunot) is a tendency or quality in a person. Beḥina (pl. beḥinot) is a state of mind at a particular moment. A general tendency (tekhuna) may alter its expression to accord with the state of mind (beḥina) due to the exigencies of the moment. That specific person – the individual self – is different with respect to each specific detail of the sin itself, and so his punishment varies according to the changing qualities of his condition – from a time of being at peace to a time of preoccupation; from a serene tendency to one of distraction; from a temperament of tranquil contemplation to one of confused thinking, and so on, as moods are in constant flux. [As a rule,] the easier it is for a person to have refrained from a sin – whether not to commit a transgression or not to nullify doing a mitzva – the greater his punishment. And as each circumstance and level [of difficulty] contributes to making it more difficult or easier, making that which is easy more difficult,10There is a difference between greater and lesser anxiety, or between having greater or lesser wealth. There are different levels of physical and emotional well-being, and each level of difficulty or of ease leads to a different judgment, because they make it easier or harder to sin. Someone who loves food gets more reward for restricting their diet to only kosher food than would someone who does not love food. Likewise, someone who is very hungry and finds themselves in a situation with no kosher food available receives a greater reward for holding back. Thus, there are general tendencies that affect behaviors and lead to different judgments and there are situational mindsets that affect behaviors and lend to different judgments. or that which is difficult easier, so will the punishment meted out be more or less painful. Greater pain corresponds to lesser [difficulty in refraining from sin] and lesser pain stems from the greater [difficulty in refraining from sin].
When a person observes, through the lens of his intelligence, or by asking someone who understands more than he does, how strong is the obligation according to the Torah to refrain from a particular sin that he wants to commit – whether not to do the sin or not to nullify a positive commandment – [the answer] hinges on the state of difficulty in observing it. There is a difference between Torah commandments and rabbinic enactments, etc., so it will be self-evident and axiomatic that the punishment will be greater than the difficulty of refraining from the sin. One can then go further and see – even at first glance and with intuitive thinking – that there are many states of mind that surpass his present state, reaching even the state of his obligation to observe and compounding its difficulty. It is in accordance with these states of mind, the numerous mindsets that divide into many levels and parts, that his punishment grows greater and greater. Thus, the sensitive human heart will tremble even without studying or delving into Mussar.
Our conclusion can be attached to the verse in Psalm 94: “Fortunate is the man whom God chastens and teaches him from Your Torah” (94:12). That is: Through the sufferings of this world, he will be spared from hard and bitter punishment, as we mentioned above. But how will a person know this? Even if he knows that he will be punished, he should at least know in a general way how terrible it will be to the person, to this sinful self. This is what is meant by the aforementioned “and teaches him from Your Torah.” Use terse statements, few in number but high in quality, to the one who will delve deeply into them.
So the Ten Days of Repentance are days of action, to see to it that we rectify our ways for the upcoming year, may it be peaceful. As the Sages, of blessed memory, say, “The average person11See Rosh HaShana 16a–b: The clearly righteous and clearly wicked receive an instant judgment. However, for the average or “in-between” person (“beinoni”), the judgment is delayed until Yom Kippur, to enable people to repent and/or to earn more merits. is suspended in judgment from Rosh HaShana to Yom Kippur. If they are worthy…”12“...if they are worthy they are inscribed for life; if they are not worthy they are inscribed for death.” When a person is in this world, he has two states of mind before him. One – which he can never fulfill – is the great desire to be brimming with all the [material] goods of this world. The second is in his capacity, according to the nature of his circumstances, to fulfill his desires and make every use of this world. The worse a person’s condition in this world, the harder he will have to work to attain his needs. The poor beggar who goes door-to-door works harder; his great effort to obtain a little money or food from a householder does not seem too difficult or strange in his eyes. The poor person works harder than the middle-class person; the middle-class person works harder than the wealthy. Why? Because aside from necessity, he will suffer more when even that little bit of food is withheld. The poor man’s pain from lack of food is greater than that of the householder, and so on.13The point of this paragraph is to emphasize the different states of mind of people. Everyone has a part of him that wants everything in the world, as well as a part that is realistic in its wants. When the person works in a realistic frame of mind, the less they have, and the harder they work to earn at least the little that they can. They do not consider it beneath their dignity to do everything necessary. People should do the same when it comes to the service of God.
The same is true of people with respect to their mindset toward their duty to serve God. There are two possible mindsets, and both are attainable. One – at all times everyone has the choice to be overflowing with His service. During the Ten Days of Repentance, a person has the power to become a changed person, to be a righteous person in the upcoming year, may it be peaceful. The second is his mindset according to the actual state of his service of God at any given time. Especially during the Ten Days of Repentance, the fundamental principle is for one to observe and reflect on his own ways, and to see to it to observe at least the part that is easier for him, according to his situation and his level of reverence. With this [approach], he will at least be saved from the most severe part of that sin, as mentioned above.14If he concentrates on changing what he can realistically, then at least he will avoid the worst part of the sin, because he is realistic in his self-assessment, conscious of his faults and temptations, and tries hard to reduce punishment.
Let me give an example15See Psalms 78:2. pertaining to Mussar study: to go occasionally to the Mussar House, which is an easy thing to do, and the study of reverence is an obligation on everyone. Perhaps this can serve as an analogy to other matters pertaining to His service. Going to the Mussar House is easy (especially on the holy Shabbat) – even for someone preoccupied with his worldly affairs. However, it is well known that study of Torah, Talmud, or legal codes is greater, and a greater obligation, on the holy Shabbat for one who is preoccupied with his worldly affairs on weekdays. So it is good to attach the [Mussar study room] to the study hall annex, or in a room near the Talmud study hall, as suggested above. So there will be no conflict [implied] between Mussar study at a distant location from the study hall regularly used by everyone for Talmud study, as mentioned, which is primary, and to which Mussar is secondary.
Every person is obligated to study Mussar, but especially a person who is preoccupied by worldly affairs, and his service of God is significantly ailing. Indeed, it is not easy to use Mussar study to cure this fierce illness which needs strong medicine.
For we see something when it comes to human capabilities: with regard to the intellect, anything learned must begin as something at the conscious level,16R. Salanter refers to “matzav habarur” (lit. “the level of clarity”) or “klar” (Yiddish for the German klár) to refer to something that one does while the mind is in a state of clarity and consciousness. He refers to subconscious and unconscious levels as “matzav hakehe” (“the state of darkness”) or “dunkele” (Yiddish for the German dúnkel); this refers to human reactions that are automatic or unconscious. For instance, when one is learning to ride a bicycle or play a musical instrument (or, as in R. Salanter’s example, learning to read), they are very conscious of each movement. In R. Salanter’s terms, they are in a “state of clarity.” Once the activity has been learned and internalized, it becomes unconscious, second nature – a “state of darkness.” and it proceeds with difficulty. When a child begins to learn Hebrew, to first know to pronounce the words, the teacher must really exert himself to illumine the letters for him, and then to combine them into a whole word. Even so, the child reads the letters and words with great difficulty. Afterward, when he has achieved the hergel17Hergel is the habituation which makes the action second nature. It is internalized and becomes unconscious behavior. needed according to his own nature, he reads fluently without even noticing. This is what psychologists call the illumined/conscious and dark (“clear” and “shadowy”) forces.18We think the term in English that captures the meaning of this dark force is “unconscious.” We have used “dark” and not used the term “unconscious” because we fear that readers will identify it with the unconscious as elaborated by Freud and the Freudians. R. Salanter clearly grasps the concept of the unconscious mind present in the human self, but to make him a Freudian would be anachronistic and misguided. It is the same with the forces of emotion: there are illumined (clear) and dark (shadowy) forces. The shadowy forces are stronger; with the slightest arousal, they respond powerfully. A person’s love of his descendants is a dark force; usually, the person does not even sense it. But with the slightest provocation it blazes up into a fiery flame. Human desires are shadowy; without some stimulus, they are hardly felt, yet their power is so great that they rule over the person.
Mussar study is initially a form of conscious agitation of the psyche. Hence, in most cases, it is powerless to help against desire, instinct which is a form of the stronger, dark forces. However, as with rational study, conscious study makes some impression each time on the unconscious level as well – for were this not so, studying would not produce completely unconscious knowledge, swiftly, with barely any thought (as long as there is no long interruption between the conscious study sessions, so that the unconscious impression does not empty out and dissipate – for then the second time will really be the first and so on, ad infinitum). The same applies to emotional agitation (hitpaalut): every agitation makes some impression at the dark, unconscious level. When all of this emotional agitation is combined and focused on one thing, without large time gaps between [each exercise] – that is, by means of small arousals [of emotion] in between [major agitations], just as intellectual study [does not dissipate] with a bit of Torah between each conscious study session – it will produce unconscious psychological powers that are strong enough to manifest in action.
So it is with Mussar study. If a person devotes himself – according to the state of ailment of his service of God, blessed be His name – to learning Mussar with emotional agitation, without large intervals between study sessions, and with small arousals [of emotion] between study [sessions], it will produce unconscious powers that will help [him resist] pervasive desire. This is not an easy thing [to do] for a person who is preoccupied with work, who is very sick, and who has limited time. And what of his Torah? Setting aside regular time for Torah19See Shabbat 31a. is his first priority.
However, to go to the Mussar House on the holy Shabbat to study Mussar with emotional agitation (attached to the aforementioned study of Talmud, which is primary), and even to run [to the Mussar House] several times a week for a short while or even a few minutes, so the impressions on the unconscious do not dissipate from one Shabbat to the next – this is an easy thing to do; and the results are very effective for acquiring unconscious dimensions [to fight] against desire. Thus he can at least control desire to the extent that he can “turn from evil and do good” (Ps. 34:15) with respect to those things that are easier for human beings, but which [if neglected] are potentially far more serious and harmful to a person – that is, to the self – in his life in the true [i.e., next] world.
The best [tactic] is to see to it that it will be easy to come to the Mussar House every day, day and night, without hindrance or preoccupation. Thus, whenever a person has an impulse to run to the Mussar House for a few minutes there will be no hindrance as far as [getting to] the Mussar House is concerned. [Otherwise,] it is only natural that Mussar study does not cause the desired effects because of long interruptions without small [emotional] arousals between sessions. There are also spiritual factors [that make Mussar study ineffective]: i.e., sins, which desensitize the human heart, so it becomes as stone (God forbid). The main cure is Torah study20R. Salanter is acknowledging the supreme value of Torah study. In traditional Jewish Lithuanian culture, Torah study was everything. In actual fact, R. Salanter is raising the importance of Mussar study, making it essential for achieving true Torah knowledge. Nevertheless, here he affirms Torah study above all; this is his positive response to R. Chaim of Volozhin, who makes Torah study for its own sake the highest value, almost to the exclusion of all other study. R. Salanter is struggling to reconcile his new educational emphasis on Mussar with the ideology of his rebbe’s rebbe. and humble prayer. Assemble in a minyan. First study some Mussar, or one of you speak about it. Then pray together about the spiritual [evil] urge.
A person’s most embracing obligation is to study Torah for its own sake, or at least with the quality of practicing it for its own sake. As in the case of doing a mitzva not for its own sake21See Pesaḥim 50b and Sanhedrin 105b. – is it permitted to do and fulfill a mitzva without its essential qualities, like [doing it for] its own sake? – so it is with Torah study. And as for the custom of Jews to learn in a manner that differs from study for its own sake – rather, primarily to know the necessary laws of daily life, which is the first duty of every child or young man – this is because the ability to learn is the primary foundation [of all Torah study]. By following the custom, one is readily equipped for this purpose. (There is no need to belabor this point at this time; I have only hinted at it so that no reader will be misled by my words.)
Torah study that is called “limmud” refers to study with sharpness and acerbity of wit.22R. Salanter uses the term giftik – toxic or poisonous – to characterize this form of study. Each person holds onto his analysis with all his might. [In contrast,] “for its own sake” [“lishmah”] implies equanimity – it makes no difference to him whether he or his companion is correct.23R. Salanter here is distinguishing between types of Torah learning. The type called “limmud,” characterized by subtlety, creativity, and originality, can be an exercise in pride and self-aggrandizement and view criticism very negatively. In the opposite approach, which R. Salanter identifies with studying “lishmah,” one views his own interpretation as one of several, equally plausible opinions and does not attempt to impose his own opinion as the correct one. R. Salanter here presents his synthesis of these two extremes. The correct approach begins with each person seeing and analyzing the given passage from their own unique perspective. This produces the maximum insights into the Torah. The second step is to consider other viewpoints and settle differences by majority rule, by deference to a weightier argument, or by the two sides accepting their differences. These two views [of Torah study] are almost diametric opposites.24R. Salanter’s view of Torah lishmah differs from the view associated with R. Chaim of Volozhin. The latter defines it as studying the theoretical Torah instead of the practical laws. Rather, R. Salanter understands “lishmah” to mean “disinterested,” studying Torah without any personal stake in what the correct interpretation ought to be, thereby enabling the student to accept the best interpretation with equanimity, even if it is not his own interpretation. It is here that the ideal of Torah study “lishmah” intersects with Mussar study, for by becoming less self-centered and less driven by competitive desire for victory, one will be more likely arrive at the correct understanding of the Torah. For this reason, our Sages, of blessed memory, instructed us how to behave, in accordance with their dictum in Kiddushin (30b): “Even a father and his son [or] a teacher and his student who study Torah together become enemies to each other, but they will not budge from there until they become beloved to each other, as it is said ‘et Vahev beSufa…’25This is a play on words. The verse is literally talking about a place, “Vahev in Sufa.” Homiletically it is taken to mean that these erstwhile rivals become beloved (“ohav”) in the end (“basof”). (Num. 21:14).” The initial “enmity” is characteristic of the sharp, acerbic limmud mentioned above. The ultimate “love” is characteristic of lishmah, wherein each person abnegates his own view to follow the majority or the greater [argument]; or, alternatively, each insists their own views, as the School of Shammai practiced according to its opinions…(Yevamot 14a),26R. Salanter does not complete the quotation, but ends it elliptically. The mishna cited in Yevamot 14a states that the School of Shammai did not refrain from marrying women from the School of Hillel, nor the School of Hillel from the School of Shammai, despite major disagreements between the two academies regarding who is deemed halakhically unfit for marriage. within the parameters explained by the Talmud and codifiers on this matter. Indeed, this loving, friendly conduct is characteristic of “lishmah.” In this he fulfills [the verse “Truth and peace shall you love” (Zech. 8:19)]: “Truth,” the characteristic of “limmud,” wherein each person articulates and supports his own reasoning, which seems correct to him, “and peace,” the characteristic of “lishmah” – “shall you love” (Yevamot 14b).
So too, all intensive study connected to His service, blessed be His name, is akin to how we supervise the Torah instruction of poor children. Intensive study is Torah, for what is Torah if not learning the will of God, blessed be His name? So too, any intensive study to ascertain how He, blessed be His name, wants us to behave vis-à-vis this commandment27R. Salanter emphasizes that the most basic purpose of Torah study is to know what God wants of us – what behavior or quality of character (midda) God prescribes through this Torah text. This corresponds to the basic education that the community is obligated to provide for its poorest members. is a particular application of this aspect of Torah. Thus, it must first be undertaken with sharpness of mind, and at the end it is “lishmah,” wherein each person abnegates his own view, peacefully and in friendship, to follow the majority as said above. In studying how to act in matters connected to His service, blessed be His name, it is easy to keep the “lishmah” aspects, and one should habituate28“Hergel.” himself to ensure that it is done “lishmah.” [However,] experience shows us that when it comes to Torah study, there is a greater shortcoming if he is lacking in the “limmud” aspect than if he is lacking in the “lishmah” dimension. One must therefore incline more toward the “limmud” aspect. When it comes to other studies [of what God wants from us], the greater shortcoming is the lack of the “lishmah” dimension, so one must therefore incline more toward the “lishmah” dimension. Thus, a person should set his heart and mind to ensure that his studies of His service, blessed be His name, have the character of “lishmah.” It is easy to achieve, so if the “lishmah” dimension is lacking, the sin is much greater, for it may happen that he produces a distorted judgment about behavior – against the will of God, blessed be His name.
For the human being, the hardest aspect of serving Him, blessed be He, is honesty in business.29This is why, in Shabbat 31a, the Talmud says this is the first question asked of the soul when it arrives in the World to Come for judgment. This is the first thing the person – the self – is questioned about when he is judged for his behavior [in the World to Come] (Shabbat 31a). It stands to reason that if a person violates a prohibition that is easily observed, then not only will its punishment be more severe than that of harder-to-observe prohibitions, but even a sin of the harder sort will be accounted by God as a prohibition that is easy to observe; for even if it would be easy to refrain [from that particular sin], he would violate it [anyway]. And so it is with doing good. The harder it is for a person to carry it out, the greater his reward, as they, of blessed memory, said: “According to the pain [of the effort] is the reward.”30Avot 5:23. Thus, if he [subsequently] performs an easy mitzva, it is considered [by God] as though it is hard, for even if it would have been hard for him, he would have done it.
Perhaps our Rabbis, of blessed memory, alluded to this: “In the future, the Holy One, blessed be He, will bring the evil urge and reject it…. To the righteous, it will appear as a huge mountain; to the wicked, it will appear as a strand of hair….” (Sukka 52a). For the righteous, who observe even difficult mitzvot, are shown that even easy observances are entered as difficult ones [for purposes of reward]; and the wicked, who violate even easy observances, are shown that even the difficult commandments are weighed somewhat as easy observances.31E.g., he receives greater punishment. Accordingly, a person should seek to be honest in business, at least as far as easy observances are concerned.
However, since errors due to lack of knowledge…[are judged as “malicious acts”32See Avot 4:13.], the best thing is to set up a regular session to study Ḥoshen Mishpat.33The section of the legal codes focused on business and commercial law. Laymen will come, sometimes this one, sometimes another, since each paragraph is easily explained independently. The laymen will learn how the law applies today – for business practices have changed. This is practically the beginning level of study of Ḥoshen Mishpat – to know and understand how these [laws] apply today. [With this knowledge,] the layman will be able to inquire and check with the scholars of Torah how to observe at least the easy matters which come up, each according to his own condition and [level of] reverence.
Accordingly, atonement on Yom Kippur for sins that depend on repentance, that is, on abandonment of the sin, is very difficult. A person should not neglect to prepare for Yom Kippur at least with respect to easier matters – e.g., during the Ten Days of Repentance, one should study ideas of repentance, at least its simpler aspects. He should go to the Mussar House at night whenever he is free from his business, to study Mussar in a state of emotional agitation almost every night, so it produces some unconscious, “dark,” effect. So should he resolve to study Mussar with all his heart and mind, at least on the holy Shabbat (in association with Talmud study, as said above), and to run there several times a week, at least for a few minutes, so that the unconscious impression is not eliminated by long interruptions, as said above. He should habituate himself to reflect upon his ways, to sense and to distinguish between easier and harder tasks. Thus, Mussar will help him observe the easier aspects of the Torah and commandments. Then he will become a [true] penitent (“baal teshuva”) on the forthcoming Yom Kippur – at least inasmuch as he resolved to abandon the aspects of sin that are easiest [to abandon]. He who comes to purify himself will thus be helped34Compare Yoma 38b; Avoda Zara 55a; Menaḥot 29b. by the Holy One, blessed be He, to rise from level to level, to uphold even the harder aspects of the Torah and the commandments, for the benefit of the person – the self – in the eternal world.
הָרַב בַּעַל מְסִילַת יְשָׁרִים בְּהַקְדָּמַת סִפְרוֹ הַנִּכְבָּד, הֵחֵל לֹאמַר כִּי לֹא יִכְתֹּב רַק דְּבָרִים פְּשׁוּטִים וְנוֹדָעִים עַיֵּין שָׁם. אֵין מְסִילַת יְשָׁרִים לְפָנַי כָּעֵת — כֵּן אָנֹכִי לֹא אֶכְתֹּב רַק אֲשֶׁר נֶאֶמְרוּ וְנִשְׁנוּ רַבּוֹת פְּעָמִים, כִּי יוֹם הַכִּפּוּרִים, לְבַד מִצְוָתוֹ הַגְּדוֹלָה, עֲשֵׂה שֶׁיֵּשׁ בָּהּ כָּרֵת וְעוֹד כוּ', הוּא תּוֹעֶלֶת גְּדוֹלָה לְהָאָדָם לְהַצִּילוֹ מִצָּרוֹת רַבּוֹת וְנִשְׂגָּבוֹת, אֲשֶׁר הָאָדָם בְּעַצְמוֹ, הוּא הָאָדָם אֲשֶׁר אֵין בְּיָדֵינוּ לְכַנּוֹתוֹ רַק — אָנֹכִי — אָנֹכִי הַלָּזֶה. הוּא הַמְדַבֵּר, הוּא הַחוֹשֵׁב, הוּא הַמִּתְאַוֶּה, הוּא הַמִּתְעַמֵּל לְהַשִּׂיג תַּאֲוָתוֹ, הוּא מִתְחַבֵּא בְּחֹמֶר הַגּוּפָנִי אֲשֶׁר בְּהִתְבַּטֵּל כֹּחוֹתָיו — הִיא הַמִּיתָה — הָאָנֹכִי הַלָּזֶה הוּא עוֹד בְּחַיּוּתוֹ וְכֹחוֹתָיו, מֻפְשָׁט מֵעוֹלַם הַגַּשְׁמִי הוּא הִתְקַשְּׁרוּת הַנֶּפֶשׁ, הוּא הָאָנֹכִי עִם הַחֹמֶר הוּא הַגּוּף, בִּתְכוּנָה אֲשֶׁר הָאָנֹכִי הַלָּזֶה מֻכְשָּׁר לְצַעַר וְעֹנֶג, לְטוֹב לוֹ אוֹ לְרָע לְצַעַר נוֹרָא וְאָיוֹם אוֹ לְעֹנֶג נִפְלָא אֲשֶׁר אֵין עֲרוֹךְ לָהֶם, גְּבוֹהִים לְמַעְלָה הַרְבֵּה נֶגֶד הַצַּעַר וְהַעֹנֶג אֲשֶׁר מֻכְשָּׁר הָאָנֹכִי הַלָּזֶה בָּעוֹלַם הַזֶּה, בִּהְיוֹתוֹ קָשׁוּר עִם הַגּוּף, הַצַּעַר וְהָעֹנֶג הַלָּזֶה תָּלוּי בְּהִתְנַהֲגוּת הָאָדָם הוּא הָאָנֹכִי בָּעוֹלַם הַזֶּה בִּשְׁמִירָתוֹ צִוּוּי ד' יִתְבָּרַךְ שְׁמוֹ, בְּהִתְקַיְּמוֹ צִוּוּיוֹ יִתְבָּרַךְ שְׁמוֹ, יַשִּׂיג הָאָדָם הוּא הָאָנֹכִי עֹנֶג גָּדוֹל וּבְעָבְרוֹ צִוּוּיוֹ יִתְבָּרַךְ שְׁמוֹ יַשִּׂיג צַעַר נוֹרָא:
In the introduction to his important book, the rabbi,1Rabbi Moshe Ḥayim Luzzatto (1707–1746), also known as Ramḥal, a prominent Italian Jewish kabbalist, philosopher of ethics, and moralist. author of Mesillat Yesharim (Path of the Just),2R. Salanter highly valued this Mussar book by R. Luzzatto and arranged for its republication in Vilna in 1844–1845 in order to have the lay people and his Mussar disciples use it as a fundamental text for character building and self-improvement. It is noteworthy that he does not turn to R. Luzzatto’s more kabbalistic writings as a resource for the Mussar movement. In a letter to his close friend and disciple, Eliyahu Kretinga, written in 1849 (see R. Shraga HaCohen Vilman, Iggerot UKetavim Me’et HaGaon R. Yisrael Salanter Zt”l [Jerusalem: Dror, 1970], 28), he writes regarding Ramḥal’s kabbalistic works: ״איננו שייך לי כי אינני עוסק בזה ולא ידעתי בכלל אם העת נכון לזה״ – “It does not relate to me, for I do not study it and I have no idea whether the time is right for it.” Educationally, one might understand R. Salanter’s approach as follows: R. Salanter sees the great challenge of the arrival of a new culture, i.e., modernity, in which the self-evident authority of the Torah is confronted with alternative values and authority, and the universal observance of tradition is consequently undermined. R. Salanter concluded that the inherited culture of external observance, drawing its authority from the collective consensus of the Torah’s sacred status and conformity of practice and thought, could not endure in the face of choice and an alternative culture. His solution was not to reinforce traditional authority on the basis of Kabbala, but instead to develop an internalized, character-based, religious individual who chose to uphold the tradition. To do so, he drew upon classic sources and the Mussar tradition, which highlighted the values inherent in observance, as well as character building and ethics, which were found in the tradition. Benjamin Brown makes the definitive case that R. Salanter chose to focus on Mussar and not Kabbala in “‘It Does Not Relate to Me’: Rabbi Israel Salanter and the Kabbalah,” in M. R. Niehoff, R. Meroz, and J. Garb (eds.), VeZot LiYehuda – And This Is for Yehuda: Yehuda Liebes Jubilee Volume (Jerusalem: Mosad Bialik, 2012), 420–39 (Hebrew). began by saying he will write only simple and well-known things. Take a look – I have no Mesillat Yesharim before me at present. I, too, will write only what has been said and repeated many times.
Yom Kippur, aside from its being a weighty mitzva – a positive commandment punishable by excision,3The first mishna in Keritot lists only two positive commandments that are punishable by karet (excision) if one fails to perform them: the Paschal offering and circumcision. It is possible that the text here should be “mitzvat lo taaseh” (“negative commandment”) instead of “mitzvat aseh” (“positive commandment”), and the printer made an error. Alternatively, R. Salanter may have written this letter while traveling – earlier he noted, “I have no Mesillat Yesharim before me at present” – so he may have simply erred or misremembered. Note that at the end of Letter 21 he mentions that he is mailing his letter immediately (by implication, not edited or proofread) and asks his students “to correct his errors.” etc. – is especially useful to save a person from a great many troubles.
For this “person” is the subject that we can only call “the self.”4R. Salanter focused on the concept of the “self” (the “anokhi,” the ego) early in his career, though the concept was not well developed in premodern thinking. For example, Rambam’s Shemona Perakim, the introduction to his commentary on Avot, does not describe character traits as components of an indivisible self, nor does it focus on the individual as a composite soul inside a body with specific traits, but rather as an agglomeration of separate “middot,” or dispositions.
Thinking of the individual as a “self” is widespread in modern culture. This reflects sociological tendencies; that is, a society that allows for more individual choice and is based on achieved status will have a more robust concept of the “self.” Moreover, these developments were incorporated into psychology and the theory of the self. Modern culture thus moves toward a much stronger sense of a unitary self, and R. Salanter’s use of “anokhi” is an example of his having internalized this emerging, more individualistic conception of human nature. The “self” is who speaks, thinks, and desires; the “self” is who works hard to attain the object of his desire. The self is embedded in physical matter, and when [this matter] loses its life force – that is, upon death – the self retains its vitality and life force. Removed from the material world5Most of R. Salanter’s statements in previous letters have been tactical and common sense. His description of the “anokhi” is the most developed conceptual statement he has made thus far.
Here he describes the self as enduring after the death of the body, thus identifying it with the soul. R. Salanter is thus asking his readers to think of Yom Kippur not as a set of rituals, but as a moment for self/soul-assessment. On Yom Kippur, the self is separated from the material world and views itself more as disembodied, whereas under normal circumstances, the body and its needs dominate. When one is thinking like a pure soul, one realizes that the greatest pleasure and pain will be experienced in the next world, so one wants to make sure to maintain a pure soul in this world, doing the mitzvot fully and not superficially. In this letter, in addition to focusing on the next world, as in previous letters, R. Salanter also focuses on this world and how our behavior in it affects our soul/self. – that is, from the linkage of the soul or self with matter or the body – it still is characterized by a capacity for pain and pleasure, of the betterment or worsening of its conditions, for terrible pain or sublime, incomparable pleasure, that far surpass the pain and pleasure that the self has the capacity for in this world, when it is tethered to the body. This [ultimate] pain and pleasure depends on the behavior of the person, the self, in this world – on observing the commandments of God, blessed be His name. By fulfilling God’s commandments, the person – that is, the self – will attain great pleasure; by violating God’s commandments, he will suffer terribly.6R. Salanter is instructing his students not to think of themselves in terms of multiple internal forces, traits, and dispositions and instead think of themselves as monistic “selves” governing everything. This “self” is the soul that survives in the next world, to be rewarded or punished in accordance with behavior as a mortal.
עַל כָּל מִין עֲבֵרָה נִבְדַּל בְּתַשְׁלוּם גְּמוּל עָנְשָׁהּ בְּאֵיכוּתָהּ מֵחַבֵרְתָּהּ לְפִי מִשְׁפָּטוֹ יִתְבָּרַךְ שְׁמוֹ, בְּכָל פְּרָט הָעֲבֵרָה נִבְדָּלִים בְּנֵי אָדָם זֶה מִזֶּה, בְּקַבָּלַת עָנְשָׁם, לְפִי תְּכוּנָתָם וּמַצָּבָם בָּעוֹלַם הַזֶּה, עָשִׁיר וְעָנִי, חָכָם וְסָכָל, זָרִיז וְעָצֵל בְּטִבְעוֹ, וְכַיּוֹצֵא הַרְבֵּה וְהַרְבֵּה בְּחִינוֹת שׁוֹנוֹת — אוֹתוֹ הָאָדָם עַצְמוֹ — הוּא הָאָנֹכִי פְּרָטִי בְּאוֹתוֹ פְּרָט חֵלֶק מִן הָעֲבֵרָה עַצְמָהּ, נִבְדַּל בְּעָנְשָׁהּ לְפִי הִתְחַלְּפוּת תְּכוּנַת מַצָּבוֹ, מֵעֵת הַמְּנוּחָה, לְעֵת הַטִּרְדָה, מִתְּכוּנַת הַמְּנוּחָה לִתְכוּנַת הַטִּרְדָה, מִתְּכוּנַת שְׁקִיטַת הָרַעְיוֹן לִתְכוּנַת בִּלְבּוּל הָרַעְיוֹן, וְכַיּוֹצֵא בְּחִינוֹת מִתְחַלְּפוֹת הַרְבֵּה, וְכָל אֲשֶׁר תָּקֵל לִפְנֵי הָאָדָם לְהִשָּׁמֵר מֵהָעֲבֵרָה, הֵן שֶׁלֹּא לַעֲשׂוֹת עֲבֵרָה, אוֹ שֶׁלֹּא לְבַטֵּל עֲשִׂיַּת מִצְוָה, כֵּן תִּגְדַּל עָנְשׁוֹ לְמַעְלָה, וּבְכָל בְּחִינָה וּמַדְרֵגָה אֲשֶׁר יִתְחַלֵּק מִכָּבֵד לַקַּל — אֲשֶׁר יֵשׁ כָּבֵד לַקַּל מִמֶּנָּה, וְיֵשׁ קַל לַכָּבֵד מִמֶּנָּה, כֵּן תִּתְחַלֵּק הָעֳנָשִׁים, מִצַּעַר גָּדוֹל לְצַעַר קָטָן, הַגָּדוֹל נֶגֶד הַקָּטָן מִמֶּנּוּ, הַקָּטָן נֶגֶד הַגָּדוֹל מִמֶּנּוּ:
The recompense for each type of sin differs qualitatively from that of any other, in accordance with His judgment.7This is a another modern-oriented interpretation, in that R. Salanter focuses on the uniqueness of every individual temperament and the differing quality of every act done by different individuals. God responds and judges each person according to their individual qualities that lead to the behaviors and materially change the inner quality of each act. The individuals’ actual behaviors externally may seem identical to someone else’s. However, reflecting each person’s uniqueness, the difficulty or ease of doing the action and the inner quality of the behavior vary widely. God discerns these differences and rewards/punishes accordingly. People differ from one another in every detail of the sin and in receiving punishment, according to their traits and circumstances in this world: rich or poor,8I.e., it is worse for a rich person to steal. wise or simple, energetic or lazy, and so forth with respect to innumerable different states of mind.9Tekhuna (pl. tekhunot) is a tendency or quality in a person. Beḥina (pl. beḥinot) is a state of mind at a particular moment. A general tendency (tekhuna) may alter its expression to accord with the state of mind (beḥina) due to the exigencies of the moment. That specific person – the individual self – is different with respect to each specific detail of the sin itself, and so his punishment varies according to the changing qualities of his condition – from a time of being at peace to a time of preoccupation; from a serene tendency to one of distraction; from a temperament of tranquil contemplation to one of confused thinking, and so on, as moods are in constant flux.
[As a rule,] the easier it is for a person to have refrained from a sin – whether not to commit a transgression or not to nullify doing a mitzva – the greater his punishment. And as each circumstance and level [of difficulty] contributes to making it more difficult or easier, making that which is easy more difficult,10There is a difference between greater and lesser anxiety, or between having greater or lesser wealth. There are different levels of physical and emotional well-being, and each level of difficulty or of ease leads to a different judgment, because they make it easier or harder to sin. Someone who loves food gets more reward for restricting their diet to only kosher food than would someone who does not love food. Likewise, someone who is very hungry and finds themselves in a situation with no kosher food available receives a greater reward for holding back. Thus, there are general tendencies that affect behaviors and lead to different judgments and there are situational mindsets that affect behaviors and lend to different judgments. or that which is difficult easier, so will the punishment meted out be more or less painful. Greater pain corresponds to lesser [difficulty in refraining from sin] and lesser pain stems from the greater [difficulty in refraining from sin].
וְכַאֲשֶׁר יַשְׁקִיף הָאָדָם בְּעֵין בִּינָתוֹ, אוֹ בִּדְרִישָׁה מֵאַחֵר הַמֵּבִין יוֹתֵר מִמֶּנּוּ, עַל פְּרַט הָעֲבֵרָה הַנִּדְרֶשֶׁת לוֹ, עַד כַּמָּה תַּעֲלֶה חִיּוּב שְׁמִירָתָה עַל פִּי הַתּוֹרָה, אִם שֶׁלֹּא לַעֲשׂוֹת עֲבֵרָה, אוֹ שֶׁלֹּא לְבַטֵּל מִצְוָה, לְפִי מַצַּב הַכְּבֵדוּת לִשְׁמֹר כִּי יֵשׁ חִלּוּק לִדְאוֹרַיְתָא וְרַבָּנָן וְכוּ', וְהוּא מֻשְׂכָּל רִאשׁוֹן מוּבָן מֵעַצְמוֹ, שֶׁהָעֹנֶשׁ יִהְיֶה יוֹתֵר גָּדוֹל מִכְּבִידַת שְׁמִירַת מְנִיעַת הָעֲבֵרָה, וְאַחַר כָּךְ יֵלֵךְ הַלְאָה יִרְאֶה גַּם בְּהַשְׁקָפָה רִאשׁוֹנָה וּבִמְרוּצַת הָרַעְיוֹן, כִּי יֵשׁ הַרְבֵּה בְּחִינוֹת, יוֹתֵר גְּדוֹלִים מִמַּצָּבוֹ עַד מַצַּב הַחִיּוּב לִשְׁמִירָה, לַקַּל נֶגֶד כָּבֵד מִמֶּנָּה, וְעַל פִּי בְּחִינוֹת הַלָּלוּ בְּחִינוֹת רַבּוֹת מִתְחַלְּקוֹת לַחֲלָקִים וּמַדְרֵגוֹת רַבּוֹת מְאֹד, כֵּן יִגְדַּל עָנְשׁוֹ לְמַעְלָה לְמַעְלָה, יֶחֱרַד מְאֹד לֵבַב הָאָדָם הַנִּלְבָּב גַּם בְּלִי עִיּוּן וְהַעְמָקַת הַמּוּסָרִי:
When a person observes, through the lens of his intelligence, or by asking someone who understands more than he does, how strong is the obligation according to the Torah to refrain from a particular sin that he wants to commit – whether not to do the sin or not to nullify a positive commandment – [the answer] hinges on the state of difficulty in observing it. There is a difference between Torah commandments and rabbinic enactments, etc., so it will be self-evident and axiomatic that the punishment will be greater than the difficulty of refraining from the sin. One can then go further and see – even at first glance and with intuitive thinking – that there are many states of mind that surpass his present state, reaching even the state of his obligation to observe and compounding its difficulty. It is in accordance with these states of mind, the numerous mindsets that divide into many levels and parts, that his punishment grows greater and greater. Thus, the sensitive human heart will tremble even without studying or delving into Mussar.
הוּא הַדָּבָר אֲשֶׁר בְּיָדֵינוּ לְהַלְבִּישׁ בְּמַאֲמַר הַכָּתוּב תְּהִלִּים צ"ד אַשְׁרֵי הַגֶּבֶר אֲשֶׁר תְּיַסְּרֶנּוּ וְגוֹ' וּמִתּוֹרָתְךָ תְּלַמְּדֶנּוּ, הַיְנוּ כִּי עַל יְדֵי יִסּוּרֵי עוֹלַם הַזֶּה יִנָּצֵל מֵעֳנָשִׁים קָשִׁים וּמָרִים כַּנִּזְכָּר לְעֵיל, וּמֵאַיִן יִוָּדַע לְהָאָדָם — אִם כִּי יוֹדֵעַ הוּא כִּי עָנֹשׁ יֵעָנֵשׁ, אֲבָל לְכָל הַפָּחוֹת בְּהַשְׁקָפָה כְּלָלִית לֵידַע כִּי עָצוּם וְנוֹרָא הוּא מְאֹד לְהָאָדָם, הוּא הָאָנֹכִי הָעוֹבֵר — הוּא וּמִתּוֹרָתְךָ תְּלַמְּדֵנּוּ כַּנִּזְכָּר לְעֵיל בִּדְבָרִים קְצָרִים מְעַטֵּי הַכָּמוּת, וְרַב הָאֵיכוּת, לַמַּעֲמִיק וּמַעֲמִיק בָּהֶם:
Our conclusion can be attached to the verse in Psalm 94: “Fortunate is the man whom God chastens and teaches him from Your Torah” (94:12). That is: Through the sufferings of this world, he will be spared from hard and bitter punishment, as we mentioned above. But how will a person know this? Even if he knows that he will be punished, he should at least know in a general way how terrible it will be to the person, to this sinful self. This is what is meant by the aforementioned “and teaches him from Your Torah.” Use terse statements, few in number but high in quality, to the one who will delve deeply into them.
וּבָזֹאת עֲשֶׂרֶת יְמֵי תְּשׁוּבָה יְמֵי מַעֲשֶׂה הֵמָּה, לִרְאוֹת לְהֵטִיב דְּרָכֵינוּ לַשָּׁנָה הַבָּאָה לְשָׁלוֹם, כְּמַאֲמַר חֲכָמֵינוּ זַ"ל בֵּינוֹנִים תְּלוּיִין וְעוֹמְדִין מֵרֹאשׁ הַשָּׁנָה עַד יוֹם הַכִּפּוּרִים זָכוּ כוּ' (רֹאשׁ־הַשָּׁנָה דַּף ט"ז), וְכַאֲשֶׁר הָאָדָם בָּעוֹלָם הַזֶּה שְׁתֵּי בְּחִינוֹת לְפָנָיו, הָאֶחָד אֵינוֹ בְּיָדוֹ הִיא תְּשׁוּקַת הָאָדָם לִהְיוֹת מָלֵא וְגָדוּשׁ בְּצָרְכֵי הָעוֹלָם הַזֶּה, וְהַשֵּׁנִי הִיא אֲשֶׁר בְּיָדוֹ לְפִי תְּכוּנַת מַצָּבוֹ לְמַלְּאוֹת חֶפְצוֹ וְהִצְטָרְכוּת עוֹלָם הַזֶּה, וְכָל אֲשֶׁר יִקְטַן הָאָדָם בְּמַצָּבוֹ בָּעוֹלָם הַזֶּה עוֹד יוֹתֵר יִתְעַמֵּל לְהַשִּׂיג חֶפְצוֹ, הֶעָנִי הַמַּחֲזִיר עַל הַפְּתָחִים מִתְעַמֵּל יוֹתֵר, וְאֵינֶנּוּ כָּבֵד וּמוּזָר לְפָנָיו טִרְחָתוֹ לְהַשִּׂיג מְעַט כֶּסֶף אוֹ אֹכֶל מִבַּעַל הַבַּיִת, הָאֶבְיוֹן יוֹתֵר מִבֵּינוֹנִי, הַבֵּינוֹנִי יוֹתֵר מֵעָשִׁיר, יַעַן מַה? יַעַן כִּי לְבַד הֶכְרֵחוֹ עוֹד יוֹתֵר יְקַבֵּל צַעַר מִמְּנִיעַת מְעַט הָאֹכֶל כוּ', הָאֶבְיוֹן בִּבְחִינַת צַעֲרוֹ מֵהַנֶּחְסָר לוֹ — הָאֶבְיוֹן יוֹתֵר מִבַּעַל הַבַּיִת כוּ':
So the Ten Days of Repentance are days of action, to see to it that we rectify our ways for the upcoming year, may it be peaceful. As the Sages, of blessed memory, say, “The average person11See Rosh HaShana 16a–b: The clearly righteous and clearly wicked receive an instant judgment. However, for the average or “in-between” person (“beinoni”), the judgment is delayed until Yom Kippur, to enable people to repent and/or to earn more merits. is suspended in judgment from Rosh HaShana to Yom Kippur. If they are worthy…”12“...if they are worthy they are inscribed for life; if they are not worthy they are inscribed for death.”
When a person is in this world, he has two states of mind before him. One – which he can never fulfill – is the great desire to be brimming with all the [material] goods of this world. The second is in his capacity, according to the nature of his circumstances, to fulfill his desires and make every use of this world. The worse a person’s condition in this world, the harder he will have to work to attain his needs. The poor beggar who goes door-to-door works harder; his great effort to obtain a little money or food from a householder does not seem too difficult or strange in his eyes. The poor person works harder than the middle-class person; the middle-class person works harder than the wealthy. Why? Because aside from necessity, he will suffer more when even that little bit of food is withheld. The poor man’s pain from lack of food is greater than that of the householder, and so on.13The point of this paragraph is to emphasize the different states of mind of people. Everyone has a part of him that wants everything in the world, as well as a part that is realistic in its wants. When the person works in a realistic frame of mind, the less they have, and the harder they work to earn at least the little that they can. They do not consider it beneath their dignity to do everything necessary. People should do the same when it comes to the service of God.
כֵּן הָאָדָם בִּבְחִינַת חִיּוּב עֲבוֹדָתוֹ לַד' יִתְבָּרַךְ שְׁמוֹ, שְׁתֵּי בְּחִינוֹת לְפָנָיו אֲשֶׁר שְׁתֵּיהֶם בְּיָדוֹ, הָאֶחָד בְּכָל הָעִתִּים כָּל אֶחָד בִּבְחִירָתוֹ לִהְיוֹת מָלֵא וְגָדוּשׁ בַּעֲבוֹדָתוֹ יִתְבָּרַךְ שְׁמוֹ, וְגַם בַּעֲשֶׂרֶת יְמֵי תְּשׁוּבָה הָאָדָם בְּיָדוֹ לְהִתְחַלֵּף לְאִישׁ אַחֵר, לִהְיוֹת צַדִּיק לַשָּׁנָה הַבָּאָה לְשָׁלוֹם. הַשֵּׁנִי הִיא הַבְּחִינָה לְפִי הַמַּצָּב בַּעֲבוֹדָתוֹ יִתְבָּרַךְ שְׁמוֹ בְּכָל הָעִתִּים, וּבִפְרָט בַּעֲשֶׂרֶת יְמֵי תְּשׁוּבָה הַיְסוֹד הָרָאשִׁי הוּא. לְהַשְׁקִיף וּלְהִתְבּוֹנֵן עַל דְּרָכָיו וְלִרְאוֹת לִשְׁמֹר לְכָל הַפָּחוֹת חֵלֶק הַקַּל מִמֶּנּוּ לְפִי מַצָּבוֹ וְיִרְאָתוֹ, וּבָזֶה יִנָּצֵל מֵחֵלֶק הַיּוֹתֵר חָמוּר בְּאוֹתָהּ הָעֲבֵרָה כַּנִּזְכָּר לְעֵיל:
The same is true of people with respect to their mindset toward their duty to serve God. There are two possible mindsets, and both are attainable. One – at all times everyone has the choice to be overflowing with His service. During the Ten Days of Repentance, a person has the power to become a changed person, to be a righteous person in the upcoming year, may it be peaceful. The second is his mindset according to the actual state of his service of God at any given time. Especially during the Ten Days of Repentance, the fundamental principle is for one to observe and reflect on his own ways, and to see to it to observe at least the part that is easier for him, according to his situation and his level of reverence. With this [approach], he will at least be saved from the most severe part of that sin, as mentioned above.14If he concentrates on changing what he can realistically, then at least he will avoid the worst part of the sin, because he is realistic in his self-assessment, conscious of his faults and temptations, and tries hard to reduce punishment.
וְאֶפְתְּחָה בְּמָשָׁל פִּי, בְּהַנּוֹגֵעַ לַלִּמּוּד הַמּוּסָרִי לֵילֵךְ לִפְעָמִים לְבֵית הַמּוּסָר, אֲשֶׁר הוּא דָּבָר נָקֵל, וְלִמּוּד הַיִּרְאָה חוֹבָה עַל הָאָדָם, וְאוּלַי תִּהְיֶה אֵיזֶה נִמְשָׁל לִדְבָרִים אֲחֵרִים הַנּוֹגֵעַ לַעֲבוֹדָתוֹ יִתְבָּרַךְ שְׁמוֹ, הַהִלּוּךְ לְבֵית הַמּוּסָרִי דָּבָר נָקֵל הוּא גַּם לַמֻּטְרָד בַּעֲסָקָיו, בִּפְרָט בְּשַׁבָּת קֹדֶשׁ, אָכֵן יָדוּעַ הוּא כִּי לִמּוּד תּוֹרָה גְּמָרָא אוֹ פּוֹסֵק, הוּא יוֹתֵר גָּדוֹל וְיוֹתֵר חוֹבָה בְּשַׁבָּת קֹדֶשׁ לַטָּרוּד בַּעֲסָקָיו בְּחֹל, וְלָזֹאת טוֹב לְסַנֵּף הַבֵּית־מִדְרָשׁ דִּלְמַטָּה, אוֹ חֶדֶר הַסָּמוּךְ לְלִמּוּד הַגְּמָרָא כַּנִּזְכָּר לְעֵיל, לְמַעַן לֹא תִּהְיֶה הִתְנַגְּדוּת לִמּוּד הַמּוּסָרִי הָרָחוֹק מִבֵּית הַמִּדְרָשׁ הָרָגִיל לְכָל אֶחָד לְלִמּוּד הַגְּמָרָא כַּנִּזְכָּר לְעֵיל הָעִקָּרִית וְהַמּוּסָר טָפֵל אֵלָיו:
Let me give an example15See Psalms 78:2. pertaining to Mussar study: to go occasionally to the Mussar House, which is an easy thing to do, and the study of reverence is an obligation on everyone. Perhaps this can serve as an analogy to other matters pertaining to His service. Going to the Mussar House is easy (especially on the holy Shabbat) – even for someone preoccupied with his worldly affairs. However, it is well known that study of Torah, Talmud, or legal codes is greater, and a greater obligation, on the holy Shabbat for one who is preoccupied with his worldly affairs on weekdays. So it is good to attach the [Mussar study room] to the study hall annex, or in a room near the Talmud study hall, as suggested above. So there will be no conflict [implied] between Mussar study at a distant location from the study hall regularly used by everyone for Talmud study, as mentioned, which is primary, and to which Mussar is secondary.
לִמּוּד הַמּוּסָרִי חוֹבָה עַל הָאָדָם, וּבְיוֹתֵר לָאָדָם הַטָּרוּד בַּעֲסָקָיו, וּמַחֲלָתוֹ גְּדוֹלָה בַּעֲבוֹדָתוֹ יִתְבָּרַךְ שְׁמוֹ, אָכֵן לֹא דָּבָר קַל הוּא לְהִשְׁתַּמֵּשׁ בִּרְפוּאַת לִמּוּד הַמּוּסָרִי, נֶגֶד מַחֲלָה הָעַזָּה הַנִּצְרֶכֶת רְפוּאוֹת גְּדוֹלוֹת:
Every person is obligated to study Mussar, but especially a person who is preoccupied by worldly affairs, and his service of God is significantly ailing. Indeed, it is not easy to use Mussar study to cure this fierce illness which needs strong medicine.
כִּי אֲנַחְנוּ רוֹאִים בְּכֹחוֹת הָאָדָם הֵן הַנּוֹגֵעַ לַשֵּׂכֶל, כָּל לִמּוּד בְּרֵאשִׁיתוֹ הוּא בַּמַּצָּב הַבָּרוּר, וּבְכָל זֶה הוֹלֵךְ בִּכְבֵדוּת, הַנַּעַר הַמַּתְחִיל לִלְמֹד עִבְרִית, לֵידַע לְהַגִּיד הַמִּלּוֹת בִּתְחִלָּה, כַּמָּה יִתְעַמֵּל עִמּוֹ מְלַמְּדוֹ לְהָאִיר לְפָנָיו הָאוֹתִיּוֹת, וְאַחַר־כָּךְ לְחַבֵּר תֵּבָה שְׁלֵמָה, בְּכָל זֹאת יִתְנַהֵג הַנַּעַר בִּכְבֵדוּת גָּדוֹל בְּקָרְאוֹ הָאוֹתִיּוֹת וְהַמִּלּוֹת, וְאַחַר־כָּךְ כְּשֶׁיִּקְנֶה הַהֶרְגֵּל הַנִּצְרָךְ לְפִי תְּכוּנָתוֹ יִקְרָא בִּמְרוּצָה בְּלִי הִתְבּוֹנְנוּת כְּלָל, הוּא אֲשֶׁר נִקְרָא אֵצֶל חוֹקְרֵי כֹּחוֹת נַפְשׁוֹת הָאָדָם, כֹּחוֹת מְאִירִים בְּרוּרִים אוֹ כֵּהִים [קְלָארֶע אוּן דּוּנְקֶעלֶע], כֵּן גַּם בְּכֹחוֹת הִתְפַּעֲלוּת הַנַּפְשִׁי, יֶשְׁנָם כֹּחוֹת מְאִירִים [קְלָארֶע] וְכֵהִים [דּוּנְקֶעלֶע], הַכֵּהִים הֵמָּה יוֹתֵר חֲזָקִים וּמוֹצִיאִים פְּעֻלָּתָם בְּהִתְעוֹרְרוּת מְעַט בְּחֹזֶק יָד, אַהֲבַת הָאָדָם לְצֶאֱצָאָיו כֵּהִים הֵמָּה, וְכִמְעַט בְּרֹב הָעִתִּים אֵינָם נִרְגָּשִׁים לְהָאָדָם עַצְמוֹ, וּבְהִתְעוֹרְרוּת קְטַנָּה תִּתְלַהֵב לְאֵשׁ בּוֹעֶרֶת, תַּאֲוַת הָאָדָם הֵמָּה הַכֵּהִים אֲשֶׁר בְּלִי הִתְעוֹרְרוּת מָה, כִּמְעַט אֵינָם נִרְגָּשִׁים, וְלָזֹאת גָּדוֹל כֹּחָם לִמְשֹׁל בָּאָדָם:
For we see something when it comes to human capabilities: with regard to the intellect, anything learned must begin as something at the conscious level,16R. Salanter refers to “matzav habarur” (lit. “the level of clarity”) or “klar” (Yiddish for the German klár) to refer to something that one does while the mind is in a state of clarity and consciousness. He refers to subconscious and unconscious levels as “matzav hakehe” (“the state of darkness”) or “dunkele” (Yiddish for the German dúnkel); this refers to human reactions that are automatic or unconscious. For instance, when one is learning to ride a bicycle or play a musical instrument (or, as in R. Salanter’s example, learning to read), they are very conscious of each movement. In R. Salanter’s terms, they are in a “state of clarity.” Once the activity has been learned and internalized, it becomes unconscious, second nature – a “state of darkness.” and it proceeds with difficulty. When a child begins to learn Hebrew, to first know to pronounce the words, the teacher must really exert himself to illumine the letters for him, and then to combine them into a whole word. Even so, the child reads the letters and words with great difficulty. Afterward, when he has achieved the hergel17Hergel is the habituation which makes the action second nature. It is internalized and becomes unconscious behavior. needed according to his own nature, he reads fluently without even noticing.
This is what psychologists call the illumined/conscious and dark (“clear” and “shadowy”) forces.18We think the term in English that captures the meaning of this dark force is “unconscious.” We have used “dark” and not used the term “unconscious” because we fear that readers will identify it with the unconscious as elaborated by Freud and the Freudians. R. Salanter clearly grasps the concept of the unconscious mind present in the human self, but to make him a Freudian would be anachronistic and misguided. It is the same with the forces of emotion: there are illumined (clear) and dark (shadowy) forces. The shadowy forces are stronger; with the slightest arousal, they respond powerfully. A person’s love of his descendants is a dark force; usually, the person does not even sense it. But with the slightest provocation it blazes up into a fiery flame. Human desires are shadowy; without some stimulus, they are hardly felt, yet their power is so great that they rule over the person.
לִמּוּד הַמּוּסָרִי יְסוֹדוֹ וְרֵאשִׁיתוֹ בְּחִינַת הַבְּרֵרוֹת בְּהִתְפַּעֲלוּת הַנֶּפֶשׁ, וְלָזֹאת כִּמְעַט בְּרֹב פְּעָמִים אֵין בְּכֹחוֹ לַעֲזֹר נֶגֶד הַתַּאֲוָה בְּחִינַת הַכֵּהֶה [דּוּנְקֶעלֶע] הַחֲזָקָה, אָכֵן כְּמוֹ בַּלִּמּוּד הַשִּׂכְלִי כָּל פַּעַם לִמּוּד הַבָּרוּר עוֹשֶׂה רֹשֶׁם בִּבְחִינַת הַכֵּהֶה, אֲשֶׁר בְּלֹא זֶה לֹא יִצְטָרְכוּ הַלִּמּוּדִים לְהִוָּלֵד בְּחִינַת הַכֵּהֶה הַגְּמוּרָה לֵידַע בִּמְרוּצָה כִּמְעַט בְּלִי הִתְבּוֹנְנוּת. וּבִתְנַאי שֶׁלֹּא יִהְיֶה הֶפְסֵק זְמַן גָּדוֹל בֵּין לִמּוּדֵי הַבָּרוּר, לְמַעַן לֹא יִתְרוֹקֵן וְיִתְבַּטֵּל רֹשֶׁם הַכֵּהֶה, כִּי אָז לִמּוּד פַּעַם הַשֵּׁנִי יִהְיֶה הָרֵאשִׁית, וְכֵן עַד אֵין סוֹף, כֵּן גַּם בְּהִתְפַּעֲלוּת נַפְשִׁי כָּל הִתְפַּעֲלוּת עוֹשָׂה רֹשֶׁם מָה בִּבְחִינַת הַכֵּהֶה, וּכְשֶׁיִּתְחַבְּרוּ הִתְפַּעֲלוּת נַפְשִׁית רַבּוֹת בְּדָבָר אֶחָד, בְּלִי הֶפְסֵק זְמַן גָּדוֹל בֵּינֵיהֶם, דְּהַיְנוּ עַל יְדֵי הִתְעוֹרְרוּת קְטַנּוֹת בֵּינֵיהֶם, כְּמוֹ בַּלִּמּוּד הַשִּׂכְלִי עַל יְדֵי תּוֹרָה מְעַט בֵּין הַלִּמּוּד בְּבֵרוּר, יִוָּלְדוּ כֹּחוֹת נְפָשׁוֹת הַכֵּהִים אֲשֶׁר חֲזָקִים הֵמָּה לְהוֹצִיא פְּעֻלָּתָם:
Mussar study is initially a form of conscious agitation of the psyche. Hence, in most cases, it is powerless to help against desire, instinct which is a form of the stronger, dark forces. However, as with rational study, conscious study makes some impression each time on the unconscious level as well – for were this not so, studying would not produce completely unconscious knowledge, swiftly, with barely any thought (as long as there is no long interruption between the conscious study sessions, so that the unconscious impression does not empty out and dissipate – for then the second time will really be the first and so on, ad infinitum). The same applies to emotional agitation (hitpaalut): every agitation makes some impression at the dark, unconscious level. When all of this emotional agitation is combined and focused on one thing, without large time gaps between [each exercise] – that is, by means of small arousals [of emotion] in between [major agitations], just as intellectual study [does not dissipate] with a bit of Torah between each conscious study session – it will produce unconscious psychological powers that are strong enough to manifest in action.
כֵּן בַּלִּמּוּד הַמּוּסָרִי, אִם יִתֵּן הָאָדָם אֶת נַפְשׁוֹ, לְפִי מַצַּב מַחֲלָתוֹ בַּעֲבוֹדָתוֹ יִתְבָּרַךְ שְׁמוֹ, לְלִמּוּד מוּסָרִי בְּהִתְפַּעֲלוּת הַנֶּפֶשׁ, בְּלִי הֶפְסֵק זְמַן גָּדוֹל בֵּין הַלִּמּוּדִים, וּבְהִתְעוֹרְרוּת מְעַט בֵּין הַלִּמּוּדִים, מִזֶּה יִוָּלֵד כֹּחוֹת הַכֵּהִים לַעֲזֹר נֶגֶד הַתַּאֲוָה הַפְּרוּשָׁה — וְהִנֵּה לֹא דָּבָר קַל הוּא לַטָּרוּד בַּעֲסָקָיו, וּמַחֲלָתוֹ רַבָּה, וְעִתּוֹתָיו קְצָרִים, וּמַה גַּם תּוֹרָתוֹ, קָבַעְתָּ עִתִּים לַתּוֹרָה הִיא הָרִאשׁוֹנָה לְפָנָיו:
So it is with Mussar study. If a person devotes himself – according to the state of ailment of his service of God, blessed be His name – to learning Mussar with emotional agitation, without large intervals between study sessions, and with small arousals [of emotion] between study [sessions], it will produce unconscious powers that will help [him resist] pervasive desire. This is not an easy thing [to do] for a person who is preoccupied with work, who is very sick, and who has limited time. And what of his Torah? Setting aside regular time for Torah19See Shabbat 31a. is his first priority.
אָכֵן לֵילֵךְ בְּשַׁבָּת קֹדֶשׁ לְבֵית הַמּוּסָר, לִלְמֹד מוּסָר בְּהִתְפַּעֲלוּת הַנֶּפֶשׁ [סְנִיף לְלִמּוּד הַגְּמָרָא הָעִקָּרִית הַנִּזְכָּר לְעֵיל] וְגַם לָרוּץ אֵיזֶה פְּעָמִים בַּשָּׁבוּעַ עַל שָׁעָה קַלָּה כִּמְעַט גַּם אֵיזֶה מִינוּטִין, לְמַעַן לֹא יִתְבַּטֵּל הָרוֹשְׁמִים הַכֵּהִים מֵאֹרֶךְ הַזְּמן מִשַּׁבָּת קֹדֶשׁ לְשַׁבָּת קֹדֶשׁ, נָקֵל מְאֹד לַעֲשׂוֹתָהּ וּפִרְיָהּ רַב לְהוֹעִיל לִקְנוֹת בְּחִינַת כֹּחוֹת נֶגֶד הַתַּאֲוָה, לְכָל הַפָּחוֹת לִמְשֹׁל לִהְיוֹת סוּר מֵרָע וַעֲשֵׂה טוֹב בִּבְחִינוֹת הַקַּלּוֹת לִפְנֵי הָאָדָם, אֲשֶׁר הֵמָּה בְּחִינוֹת חֲמוּרוֹת יוֹתֵר וּמַזִּיקוֹת לְהָאָדָם — הוּא הָאָנֹכִי, יוֹתֵר וְיוֹתֵר בְּעוֹלָמוֹ הַחַי הָאֲמִתִּי:
However, to go to the Mussar House on the holy Shabbat to study Mussar with emotional agitation (attached to the aforementioned study of Talmud, which is primary), and even to run [to the Mussar House] several times a week for a short while or even a few minutes, so the impressions on the unconscious do not dissipate from one Shabbat to the next – this is an easy thing to do; and the results are very effective for acquiring unconscious dimensions [to fight] against desire. Thus he can at least control desire to the extent that he can “turn from evil and do good” (Ps. 34:15) with respect to those things that are easier for human beings, but which [if neglected] are potentially far more serious and harmful to a person – that is, to the self – in his life in the true [i.e., next] world.
הַטּוֹב לִרְאוֹת שֶׁיִּהְיֶה נָקֵל לָבֹא בְּבֵית הַמּוּסָר בְּכָל מֵעֵת לְעֵת הַיּוֹם וְהַלַּיְלָה בְּאֵין מַפְרִיעַ וְאֵין טִרְחָה, — אֲשֶׁר בְּכָל עֵת שֶׁיִּפֹּל בְּלֵב הָאָדָם לָרוּץ אֶל בֵּית הַמּוּסָר עַל אֵיזֶה מִינוּטִין, לֹא יִהְיֶה לוֹ שׁוּם מַפְרִיעַ מִצַּד בֵּית הַמּוּסָר, זֹאת כִּמְעַט סִבָּה הַטִּבְעִית, אֲשֶׁר לִמּוּד הַמּוּסָרִי אֵינוֹ פּוֹעֵל פְּעֻלָּתוֹ הַנִּדְרֶשֶׁת, מִסִּבַּת הֶפְסִיקוֹת זְמַן אָרֹךְ בְּלִי הִתְעוֹרְרוּת קְטַנָּה בֵּינֵיהֶם. כֵּן גַּם יֵשׁ סִבּוֹת רוּחָנִיּוֹת הִיא הָעֲבֵרוֹת, הַמְטַמְטְמוֹת לִבּוֹ שֶׁל אָדָם וְהָיָה לְאֶבֶן חָלִילָה, רְפוּאָתָהּ הָעִקָּרִי לִמּוּד הַתּוֹרָה וְגַם הַתְּפִלָּה בְּהַכְנָעָה, תִּתְאַסְּפוּ נָא בַּעֲשָׂרָה תִּלְמְדוּ קֹדֶם מוּסָר אוֹ יִדְרֹשׁ אֶחָד, וְאַחַר־כָּךְ לְהִתְפַּלֵּל בְּיַחַד עַל יֵצֶר הָרוּחָנִי:
The best [tactic] is to see to it that it will be easy to come to the Mussar House every day, day and night, without hindrance or preoccupation. Thus, whenever a person has an impulse to run to the Mussar House for a few minutes there will be no hindrance as far as [getting to] the Mussar House is concerned. [Otherwise,] it is only natural that Mussar study does not cause the desired effects because of long interruptions without small [emotional] arousals between sessions.
There are also spiritual factors [that make Mussar study ineffective]: i.e., sins, which desensitize the human heart, so it becomes as stone (God forbid). The main cure is Torah study20R. Salanter is acknowledging the supreme value of Torah study. In traditional Jewish Lithuanian culture, Torah study was everything. In actual fact, R. Salanter is raising the importance of Mussar study, making it essential for achieving true Torah knowledge. Nevertheless, here he affirms Torah study above all; this is his positive response to R. Chaim of Volozhin, who makes Torah study for its own sake the highest value, almost to the exclusion of all other study. R. Salanter is struggling to reconcile his new educational emphasis on Mussar with the ideology of his rebbe’s rebbe. and humble prayer. Assemble in a minyan. First study some Mussar, or one of you speak about it. Then pray together about the spiritual [evil] urge.
הַחוֹב הַיּוֹתֵר פְּרוּשָׂה עַל הָאָדָם הוּא לִמּוּד תּוֹרָה לִשְׁמָהּ. אוֹ לְכָל הַפָּחוֹת בִּתְכוּנַת עֲשִׂיָּתָהּ לִשְׁמָהּ. כְּמוֹ בְּמִצְוָה שֶׁלֹּא לִשְׁמָהּ, הַאִם מֻתָּר לַעֲשׂוֹת וּלְקַיֵּם בְּלִי תְּכוּנָתָהּ כְּמוֹ לִשְׁמָהּ, כֵּן גַּם בַּתּוֹרָה, וּמַה שֶּׁמִּנְהָגָן שֶׁל יִשְׂרָאֵל לִלְמֹד שֶׁלֹּא כְּדֶרֶךְ שֶׁלּוֹמְדִין לִשְׁמָהּ, כְּמוֹ הָעִקָּר לֵידַע דִּינֵי אֹרַח חַיִּים הַנִּצְרָכִים, אֲשֶׁר זֶהוּ הַחוֹב הָרִאשׁוֹן לַנַּעַר וְלָאַבְרֵךְ, הוּא כִּי הַיְסוֹד הָרִאשׁוֹן הוּא יְכֹלֶת הַלִּמּוּד, אֲשֶׁר לָזֶה מְסֻגָּל מְאֹד כְּפִי הַמִּנְהָג, וְאֵין לְהַאֲרִיךְ בָּזֶה כָּעֵת, רַק רָמַזְתִּי מְעַט לְמַעַן לֹא יִטְעֶה הַקּוֹרֵא בִּדְבָרַי:
A person’s most embracing obligation is to study Torah for its own sake, or at least with the quality of practicing it for its own sake. As in the case of doing a mitzva not for its own sake21See Pesaḥim 50b and Sanhedrin 105b. – is it permitted to do and fulfill a mitzva without its essential qualities, like [doing it for] its own sake? – so it is with Torah study. And as for the custom of Jews to learn in a manner that differs from study for its own sake – rather, primarily to know the necessary laws of daily life, which is the first duty of every child or young man – this is because the ability to learn is the primary foundation [of all Torah study]. By following the custom, one is readily equipped for this purpose. (There is no need to belabor this point at this time; I have only hinted at it so that no reader will be misled by my words.)
הַלִּמּוּד בַּתּוֹרָה אֲשֶׁר יִקָּרֵא לִמּוּד, הוּא לִלְמֹד בַּחֲרִיפוּת הַדַּעַת [גִּיפְטִיג] כָּל אֶחָד מַחֲזִיק בְּכָל עֹז סְבָרָתוֹ. הֲלִשְׁמָהּ הִיא שְׁקִיטַת הָרוּחַ, אִם כִּדְבָרָיו וְאִם כִּדְבָרֵי חֲבֵרוֹ לִהְיוֹת שָׁוֶה בְּעֵינָיו. וְהֵמָּה כִּמְעַט דְּבָרִים מִתְנַגְּדִים זֶה לָזֶה, לָזֹאת הוֹרוּנוּ חֲכָמֵינוּ זַ"ל אֵיךְ לְהִתְנַהֵג, כְּמַאֲמָרָם קִדּוּשִׁים (דַּף ל') אֲפִלּוּ הָאָב וּבְנוֹ הָרַב וְתַלְמִידוֹ שֶׁעוֹסְקִין בַּתּוֹרָה בְּשַׁעַר אֶחָד, נַעֲשִׂים אוֹיְבִים זֶה אֶת זֶה, וְאֵינָם זָזִים מִשָּׁם עַד שֶׁנַּעֲשִׂים אוֹהֲבִים זֶה אֶת זֶה, שֶׁנֶּאֱמַר וְאֶת וָהָב בְּסוּפָה כוּ' עַיֵּן שָׁם, הָאֵיבָה בָּרִאשׁוֹנָה הִיא בְּחִינַת הַלִּמּוּד בַּחֲרִיפוּת הַדַּעַת [גִּיפְטִיג] כַּנִּזְכָּר לְעֵיל, וְהָאַהֲבָה בְּסוֹפָהּ הִיא בְּחִינַת הַלִּשְׁמָהּ, לְבַטֵּל כָּל אֶחָד דַּעְתּוֹ לֵילֵךְ אַחַר הָרֹב אוֹ הַגָּדוֹל, אוֹ לַעֲמֹד כָּל אֶחָד בְּדַעְתּוֹ כְּמוֹ עָשׂוּ בֵּית שַׁמַּאי כְּדִבְרֵיהֶם כוּ' (יְבָמוֹת דַּף י"ד), עַל פִּי הַגְּדָרִים הַמְבֹאָרִים בַּגְּמָרָא וּפוֹסְקִים בָּזֶה. אָכֵן בְּהַנְהָגַת חִבָּה וְרֵעוּת, הִיא בְּחִינַת הַלִּשְׁמָהּ, לְקַיֵּם הָאֱמֶת, הִיא בְּחִינַת הַלִּמּוּד, לְהַגִּיד וּלְחַזֵּק כָּל אֶחָד סְבָרָתוֹ הַנִּרְאֶה נָכוֹן בְּעֵינָיו, וְהַשָּׁלוֹם הִיא בְּחִינַת הַלִּשְׁמָהּ אָהֲבוּ, (יְבָמוֹת שָׁם ע"ב) :
Torah study that is called “limmud” refers to study with sharpness and acerbity of wit.22R. Salanter uses the term giftik – toxic or poisonous – to characterize this form of study. Each person holds onto his analysis with all his might. [In contrast,] “for its own sake” [“lishmah”] implies equanimity – it makes no difference to him whether he or his companion is correct.23R. Salanter here is distinguishing between types of Torah learning. The type called “limmud,” characterized by subtlety, creativity, and originality, can be an exercise in pride and self-aggrandizement and view criticism very negatively. In the opposite approach, which R. Salanter identifies with studying “lishmah,” one views his own interpretation as one of several, equally plausible opinions and does not attempt to impose his own opinion as the correct one.
R. Salanter here presents his synthesis of these two extremes. The correct approach begins with each person seeing and analyzing the given passage from their own unique perspective. This produces the maximum insights into the Torah. The second step is to consider other viewpoints and settle differences by majority rule, by deference to a weightier argument, or by the two sides accepting their differences. These two views [of Torah study] are almost diametric opposites.24R. Salanter’s view of Torah lishmah differs from the view associated with R. Chaim of Volozhin. The latter defines it as studying the theoretical Torah instead of the practical laws. Rather, R. Salanter understands “lishmah” to mean “disinterested,” studying Torah without any personal stake in what the correct interpretation ought to be, thereby enabling the student to accept the best interpretation with equanimity, even if it is not his own interpretation. It is here that the ideal of Torah study “lishmah” intersects with Mussar study, for by becoming less self-centered and less driven by competitive desire for victory, one will be more likely arrive at the correct understanding of the Torah. For this reason, our Sages, of blessed memory, instructed us how to behave, in accordance with their dictum in Kiddushin (30b): “Even a father and his son [or] a teacher and his student who study Torah together become enemies to each other, but they will not budge from there until they become beloved to each other, as it is said ‘et Vahev beSufa…’25This is a play on words. The verse is literally talking about a place, “Vahev in Sufa.” Homiletically it is taken to mean that these erstwhile rivals become beloved (“ohav”) in the end (“basof”). (Num. 21:14).” The initial “enmity” is characteristic of the sharp, acerbic limmud mentioned above. The ultimate “love” is characteristic of lishmah, wherein each person abnegates his own view to follow the majority or the greater [argument]; or, alternatively, each insists their own views, as the School of Shammai practiced according to its opinions…(Yevamot 14a),26R. Salanter does not complete the quotation, but ends it elliptically. The mishna cited in Yevamot 14a states that the School of Shammai did not refrain from marrying women from the School of Hillel, nor the School of Hillel from the School of Shammai, despite major disagreements between the two academies regarding who is deemed halakhically unfit for marriage. within the parameters explained by the Talmud and codifiers on this matter. Indeed, this loving, friendly conduct is characteristic of “lishmah.”
In this he fulfills [the verse “Truth and peace shall you love” (Zech. 8:19)]: “Truth,” the characteristic of “limmud,” wherein each person articulates and supports his own reasoning, which seems correct to him, “and peace,” the characteristic of “lishmah” – “shall you love” (Yevamot 14b).
כֵּן גַּם בְּכָל עִיּוּן הַשַּׁיָּךְ לַעֲבוֹדָתוֹ יִתְבָּרַךְ שְׁמוֹ, כְּמוֹ בַּמְפַקְּחִים עַל לִמּוּד לִבְנֵי עֲנִיִּים תּוֹרָה, הָעִיּוּן הִיא בְּחִינַת הַתּוֹרָה, כִּי מַה הִיא הַתּוֹרָה, הַלִּמּוּד לֵידַע אֵיךְ רְצוֹנוֹ יִתְבָּרַךְ שְׁמוֹ, כֵּן בְּכָל הָעִיּוּנִים אֲשֶׁר הֵמָּה הָעִיּוּן אֵיךְ רְצוֹנוֹ יִתְבָּרַךְ שְׁמוֹ לְהִתְנַהֵג בַּמִּצְוָה הַזֹּאת, הֵמָּה עֲנָפִים מִבְּחִינַת הַתּוֹרָה, וּצְרִיכָה לִהְיוֹת בָּרִאשׁוֹנָה בַּחֲרִיפַת הַדַּעַת, וְהַסּוֹף הַלִּשְׁמָהּ לְבַטֵּל כָּל אֶחָד דַּעְתּוֹ בְּשָׁלוֹם וְרֵעוּת לְהִתְנַהֵג אַחַר הָרֹב כַּנִּזְכָּר לְעֵיל — הָעִיּוּן אֵיךְ לְהִתְנַהֵג בְּסִדְרֵי הָעִנְיָנִים הַשַּׁיָּכִים לַעֲבוֹדָתוֹ יִתְבָּרַךְ שְׁמוֹ, נָקֵל בְּחִינַת הַלִּשְׁמָהּ לִשְׁמֹר, וְצָרִיךְ הָאָדָם לְהַרְגִּיל אֶת עַצְמוֹ לִרְאוֹת שֶׁיִּהְיֶה בִּבְחִינַת לִשְׁמָהּ — הַנִּסָּיוֹן יוֹרֶנּוּ כִּי בְּלִמּוּד הַתּוֹרָה, הַחִסָּרוֹן יוֹתֵר גָּדוֹל אִם יֶחְסַר מַה בִּבְחִינַת הַלִּמּוּד מִן בְּחִינַת הַלִּשְׁמָהּ, וְצָרִיךְ הָאָדָם לִנְטוֹת יוֹתֵר אַחַר בְּחִינַת הַלִּמּוּד, וּבִשְׁאָר הָעִיּוּנִים הַחִסָּרוֹן יוֹתֵר גָּדוֹל חֶסְרוֹן בְּחִינַת לִשְׁמָהּ, וְצָרִיךְ הָאָדָם לִנְטוֹת אַחַר בְּחִינַת לִשְׁמָהּ — לָזֹאת יָשִׂים הָאָדָם לִבּוֹ וְנַפְשׁוֹ לִרְאוֹת שֶׁיִּהְיוּ הָעִיּוּנִים בַּעֲבוֹדָתוֹ יִתְבָּרַךְ שְׁמוֹ בִּבְחִינַת לִשְׁמָהּ, הַדָּבָר נָקֵל לְקַיְּמָהּ, וּבְחֶסְרוֹן בְּחִינַת לִשְׁמָהּ, הָעֲבֵרָה גְּדוֹלָה וְנִשָּׂאָה, כִּי יִוָּלֵד חָלִילָה לְהוֹצִיא מִשְׁפָּט מְעֻקָּל בְּהַנְהָגָה נֶגֶד רְצוֹנוֹ יִתְבָּרַךְ שְׁמוֹ:
So too, all intensive study connected to His service, blessed be His name, is akin to how we supervise the Torah instruction of poor children. Intensive study is Torah, for what is Torah if not learning the will of God, blessed be His name? So too, any intensive study to ascertain how He, blessed be His name, wants us to behave vis-à-vis this commandment27R. Salanter emphasizes that the most basic purpose of Torah study is to know what God wants of us – what behavior or quality of character (midda) God prescribes through this Torah text. This corresponds to the basic education that the community is obligated to provide for its poorest members. is a particular application of this aspect of Torah. Thus, it must first be undertaken with sharpness of mind, and at the end it is “lishmah,” wherein each person abnegates his own view, peacefully and in friendship, to follow the majority as said above. In studying how to act in matters connected to His service, blessed be His name, it is easy to keep the “lishmah” aspects, and one should habituate28“Hergel.” himself to ensure that it is done “lishmah.”
[However,] experience shows us that when it comes to Torah study, there is a greater shortcoming if he is lacking in the “limmud” aspect than if he is lacking in the “lishmah” dimension. One must therefore incline more toward the “limmud” aspect. When it comes to other studies [of what God wants from us], the greater shortcoming is the lack of the “lishmah” dimension, so one must therefore incline more toward the “lishmah” dimension. Thus, a person should set his heart and mind to ensure that his studies of His service, blessed be His name, have the character of “lishmah.” It is easy to achieve, so if the “lishmah” dimension is lacking, the sin is much greater, for it may happen that he produces a distorted judgment about behavior – against the will of God, blessed be His name.
עֲבוֹדָתוֹ יִתְבָּרַךְ שְׁמוֹ הַיּוֹתֵר כְּבֵדָה עַל הָאָדָם הִיא מַשָּׂא וּמַתָּן בֶּאֱמוּנָה, אֲשֶׁר עָלָיו שׁוֹאֲלִין לְהָאָדָם — הוּא הָאָנֹכִי — בָּרִאשׁוֹנָה בְּבוֹאוֹ לָדוּן עַל הַנְהָגָתוֹ (שַׁבָּת דַּף ל"א), הַדַּעַת נוֹטָה כִּי אִם יַעֲבֹר הָאָדָם בְּמִין הָעֲבֵרָה בִּבְחִינַת הַקַּלָּה, אֲשֶׁר לְבַד עָנְשָׁהּ הֶחָמוּר יוֹתֵר מֵעֲבֵרָה בִּבְחִינַת הַכְּבֵדוֹת, — גַּם כֵּן עֲשִׂיַּת הָעֲבֵרָה הָעַצְמָהּ בִּבְחִינַת הַכְּבֵדוּת, יִכָּנֵס עַל יְדֵי זֶה מַה בִּבְחִינַת הַקַּלּוֹת, כִּי גַּם אִלּוּ הָיְתָה קַל לְפָנָיו הָיָה עוֹבְרָהּ. וְכֵן בַּעֲשִׂיַּת הַטּוֹב כָּל מַה שֶּׁכָּבֵד יוֹתֵר עַל הָאָדָם לְקַיְּמָהּ יִגְדַּל שְׂכָרוֹ כְּמַאֲמָרָם זַ"ל לְפוּם צַעֲרָא אַגְרָא, וּבָזֹאת בַּעֲשׂוֹתוֹ אוֹתָהּ הַמִּצְוָה בִּבְחִינַת הַקַּלּוֹת, יִכָּנֵס גַּם כֵּן בִּבְחִינַת הַכְּבֵדוּת כִּי גַּם אִם הָיָה כָּבֵד לְפָנָיו הָיָה מְקַיְּמָהּ:
For the human being, the hardest aspect of serving Him, blessed be He, is honesty in business.29This is why, in Shabbat 31a, the Talmud says this is the first question asked of the soul when it arrives in the World to Come for judgment. This is the first thing the person – the self – is questioned about when he is judged for his behavior [in the World to Come] (Shabbat 31a). It stands to reason that if a person violates a prohibition that is easily observed, then not only will its punishment be more severe than that of harder-to-observe prohibitions, but even a sin of the harder sort will be accounted by God as a prohibition that is easy to observe; for even if it would be easy to refrain [from that particular sin], he would violate it [anyway].
And so it is with doing good. The harder it is for a person to carry it out, the greater his reward, as they, of blessed memory, said: “According to the pain [of the effort] is the reward.”30Avot 5:23. Thus, if he [subsequently] performs an easy mitzva, it is considered [by God] as though it is hard, for even if it would have been hard for him, he would have done it.
אוּלַי לָזֶה רָמְזוּ רַבּוֹתֵינוּ זַ"ל (סֻכָּה דַּף נ"ג) לֶעָתִיד לָבֹא מְבִיאוֹ הַקָּדוֹשׁ־בָּרוּךְ־הוּא לַיֵּצֶר הָרָע כוּ' צַדִּיקִים נִדְמֶה לָהֶם כְּהַר גָּבוֹהַּ וּרְשָׁעִים נִדְמֶה לָהֶם כְּחוּט הַשְּׂעָרָה כוּ' עַיֵּן שָׁם, כִּי הַצַּדִּיק הַמְקַיֵּם גַּם בִּבְחִינַת הַכְּבֵדוּת, מַרְאִים לָהֶם שֶׁגַּם הַבְּחִינוֹת הַקַּלּוֹת, בַּבְּחִינוֹת הַכְּבֵדוֹת יִכָּנְסוּ. וְהָרָשָׁע הָעוֹבֵר גַּם בַּבְּחִינוֹת הַקַּלּוֹת, מַרְאִים לוֹ שֶׁגַּם בְּחִינַת הַכְּבֵדוֹת בִּבְחִינַת הַקַּלּוֹת יִכָּנְסוּ מַה — לָזֹאת יְחַפֵּשׂ לְקַיֵּם מַשָּׂא וּמַתָּן בֶּאֱמוּנָה לְכָל הַפָּחוֹת בַּבְּחִינוֹת הַקַּלּוֹת:
Perhaps our Rabbis, of blessed memory, alluded to this: “In the future, the Holy One, blessed be He, will bring the evil urge and reject it…. To the righteous, it will appear as a huge mountain; to the wicked, it will appear as a strand of hair….” (Sukka 52a). For the righteous, who observe even difficult mitzvot, are shown that even easy observances are entered as difficult ones [for purposes of reward]; and the wicked, who violate even easy observances, are shown that even the difficult commandments are weighed somewhat as easy observances.31E.g., he receives greater punishment. Accordingly, a person should seek to be honest in business, at least as far as easy observances are concerned.
אָכֵן שִׁגְגַת תַּלְמוּד כוּ' הַטּוֹב לִקְבֹּעַ שִׁעוּר לְלִמּוּד חֹשֶׁן מִשְׁפָּט, וְיָבוֹאוּ בַּעֲלֵי בָּתִּים לִפְעָמִים זֶה וְלִפְעָמִים זֶה, כִּי כָּל סָעִיף כִּמְעַט נָקֵל לְהַסְבִּירוֹ בִּפְנֵי עַצְמוֹ, וְהַבַּעֲלֵי בָּתִּים יְעַיְּנוּ אֵיךְ יִהְיֶה הַדִּין שַׁיָּךְ כָּעֵת, כִּי הָעֲסָקִים נִשְׁתַּנּוּ וְזֶה כִּמְעַט הַתְחָלַת יְדִיעַת הַלִּמּוּד בְּחֹשֶׁן מִשְׁפָּט, לֵידַע וּלְהָבִין אֵיךְ הֵם שַׁיָּכִים כָּעֵת, וּבָזֶה יִהְיֶה בְּיַד בַּעֲלֵי בָּתִּים לִדְרֹשׁ וְלַחֲקֹר אֵצֶל תּוֹפְשֵׂי הַתּוֹרָה, אֵיךְ לְקַיֵּם אֶת אֲשֶׁר יִקְרֶה לִפְנֵיהֶם לְכָל הַפָּחוֹת בַּבְּחִינוֹת הַקַּלּוֹת, אִישׁ לְפִי מַצָּבוֹ וְיִרְאָתוֹ:
However, since errors due to lack of knowledge…[are judged as “malicious acts”32See Avot 4:13.], the best thing is to set up a regular session to study Ḥoshen Mishpat.33The section of the legal codes focused on business and commercial law. Laymen will come, sometimes this one, sometimes another, since each paragraph is easily explained independently. The laymen will learn how the law applies today – for business practices have changed. This is practically the beginning level of study of Ḥoshen Mishpat – to know and understand how these [laws] apply today. [With this knowledge,] the layman will be able to inquire and check with the scholars of Torah how to observe at least the easy matters which come up, each according to his own condition and [level of] reverence.
וּבָזֹאת כַּפָּרַת עֲוֹנוֹת בְּיוֹם הַכִּפּוּרִים הַתָּלוּי בִּתְשׁוּבָה, הִיא עֲזִיבַת הַחֵטְא תִּכְבַּד מְאֹד, אַל יִרֶף הָאָדָם לַעֲשׂוֹת הֲכָנָה לְיוֹם הַכִּפּוּרִים לְכָל הַפָּחוֹת בַּבְּחִינוֹת הַקַּלּוֹת, הַיְנוּ לַעֲסֹק בַּעֲשֶׂרֶת יְמֵי תְּשׁוּבָה בְּעִנְיְנֵי הַתְּשׁוּבָה לְכָל הַפָּחוֹת בַּבְּחִינוֹת הַקַּלּוֹת, לֵילֵךְ לְבֵית הַמּוּסָר בַּלַּיְלָה בְּעֵת פָּנוּי מֵעֲסָקָיו, לִלְמֹד מוּסָר בְּהִתְפַּעֲלוּת הַנֶּפֶשׁ כִּמְעַט בְּכָל לַיְלָה, אֲשֶׁר יִוָּלֵד מִזֶּה אֵיזֶה בְּחִינַת כֵּהֶה [דּוּנְקֶעלֶע] לְקַבָּלַת לִמּוּד הַמּוּסָר בְּלֹא נֶדֶר לְכָל הַפָּחוֹת בְּשַׁבָּת קֹדֶשׁ [סְנִיף לְלִמּוּד הַגְּמָרָא כַּנִּזְכָּר לְעֵיל] וְלָרוּץ אֵיזֶה פְּעָמִים בְּשָׁבוּעַ. לְכָל הַפָּחוֹת עַל אֵיזֶה מִינוּטִין, לְמַעַן לֹא יַשְׁבִּית רֹשֶׁם הַכֵּהֶה הֶפְסֵק הַזְּמַן כַּנִּזְכָּר לְעֵיל, וּלְהַרְגִּיל אֶת עַצְמוֹ לְהַשְׁקִיף עַל דְּרָכָיו, לְהַרְגִּישׁ לְהַבְחִין בֵּין קַל לְכָבֵד, אֲשֶׁר לְכָל הַפָּחוֹת יַעַזְרֵהוּ הַמּוּסָרִי, לִשְׁמֹר הַתּוֹרָה וְהַמִּצְוָה בַּבְּחִינוֹת הַקַּלּוֹת, וְיָבֹא לִבְחִינַת בַּעַל תְּשׁוּבָה בְּיוֹם הַכִּפּוּרִים הַבָּא עָלֵינוּ לְטוֹבָה, לְכָל הַפָּחוֹת בְּקַבָּלַת עֲזִיבַת הַחֵטְא בַּבְּחִינוֹת הַקַּלּוֹת, וּבָזֶה הַבָּא לְטַהֵר יְסַיְּעֵהוּ הַקָּדוֹשׁ־בָּרוּךְ־הוּא לֵילֵךְ מִדַּרְגָּא לְדַרְגָּא לְקַיֵּם הַתּוֹרָה וְהַמִּצְוָה, גַּם בַּבְּחִינוֹת הַכְּבֵדוֹת לְטוֹב לְהָאָדָם — הוּא — הָאָנֹכִי — בְּעוֹלָמוֹ הַנִּצְחִי:
Accordingly, atonement on Yom Kippur for sins that depend on repentance, that is, on abandonment of the sin, is very difficult. A person should not neglect to prepare for Yom Kippur at least with respect to easier matters – e.g., during the Ten Days of Repentance, one should study ideas of repentance, at least its simpler aspects. He should go to the Mussar House at night whenever he is free from his business, to study Mussar in a state of emotional agitation almost every night, so it produces some unconscious, “dark,” effect. So should he resolve to study Mussar with all his heart and mind, at least on the holy Shabbat (in association with Talmud study, as said above), and to run there several times a week, at least for a few minutes, so that the unconscious impression is not eliminated by long interruptions, as said above. He should habituate himself to reflect upon his ways, to sense and to distinguish between easier and harder tasks. Thus, Mussar will help him observe the easier aspects of the Torah and commandments. Then he will become a [true] penitent (“baal teshuva”) on the forthcoming Yom Kippur – at least inasmuch as he resolved to abandon the aspects of sin that are easiest [to abandon].
He who comes to purify himself will thus be helped34Compare Yoma 38b; Avoda Zara 55a; Menaḥot 29b. by the Holy One, blessed be He, to rise from level to level, to uphold even the harder aspects of the Torah and the commandments, for the benefit of the person – the self – in the eternal world.